The impact of success criteria in high-error practice conditions on motor learning, self-efficacy, and mood states: A challenge to the optimal theory

Khalilirad, Samaneh Sadat; Mohammadzadeh, Hasan; Ayatizadeh Tafti, Farahnaz

doi:10.22059/sshr.2024.381467.1159

The impact of success criteria in high-error practice conditions on motor learning, self-efficacy, and mood states: A challenge to the optimal theory

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

¹ Iran. university urmiye

² professor, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Department of Motor Behavior, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran.

³ Associate Professor, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Department of Sport Sciences Yazd University, Yazd, Iran.

10.22059/sshr.2024.381467.1159

Abstract

Background: Identifying the practice conditions that optimize the learning of motor skills is one of the main objectives in the area of human motor learning research.
Aim: The present study aims to explore the effect of success criteria in high-error practice conditions on motor learning, self-efficacy, and mood states among female students.
Materials and Methods: This practical quasi-experimental study was conducted in a field setting. The participants were 30 female students from Yazd University, selected through convenience sampling. Completing the consent form, the selected participants were randomly divided into three groups: high-error practice with a large target (n= 10), high-error practice with a small target (n= 10), and a high-error control group (n= 10). Then, mixed ANOVA was applied in order to test the hypotheses.
Results: The results revealed that both of the large and small target groups significantly outperformed the control group regarding the difference in performance accuracy. Moreover, considering mood states, in the small target group, significant differences were observed in the calmness, happiness, and total mood state subscales, while in the large target group, significant differences were found in the vigor, happiness, depression, and total mood state subscales. In terms of self-efficacy, significant differences were observed in the level and power dimensions in small target group; however, the power dimension was the mere aspect revealing significant difference in the large target group.
Conclusion: The use of success criteria in high-error practice methods is beneficial, and it is recommended to adopt this approach to improve accuracy and stability in the practice sessions.

Keywords

References

[1] Nazari Kakvandi S, Saberi Kakhki AR, Taheri H, Rohbanfard H. "The effect of selected practice arrangement on the learning of the relative timing of a motor task: Emphasis on implicit and explicit approaches". Motor Behavior. 2021; 13(45): 61-90. DOI: 10.22089/MBJ.2018.5641.1655. [in Persian]

[2] Plass JL, Homer BD, Pawar S, Brenner C, MacNamara AP. “The effect of adaptive difficulty adjustment on the effectiveness of a game to develop executive function skills for learners of different ages". Cognitive Development. 2019; 49: 56-67. DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.11.006.

[3] Sohbatiha M, Jaberimoqadam AA, Shahbazi M. ”The effect of errorless, error full practice and scaling equipment methods on learning of basketball free throw skill in children”. Motor Behavior. 2018; 9(30): 115-34. DOI: 10.22089/mbj.2017.4307.1511. [in Persian]

[4] Masters RSW, Poolton JM. "Advances in implicit motor learning". In: Hodges NJ, Williams AM, editors. Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory and Practice. 2^nd ed. London & New York: Routledge; 2012.

[5] Kashani V, Momenzadeh M, Bagherli Z. "The effects of based on error learning and practice variability on performance accuracy and mental effort". Motor Behavior. 2020; 12(40): 37-50. [in Persian]

[6] Poolton JM, Tiffany LZ. "So, you want to learn implicitly? Coaching and learning through implicit motor learning techniques". International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 2007; 2(1): 67-78. DOI: 10.1260/174795407780367177.

[7] Lane AM, Soos I, Leibinger E, Karsai I, Hamar, P. “Validity of the brunel mood scale for use with uk, italian and hungarian athletes”. In Lane AM. (ed.). Mood and Human Performance: Conceptual, Measurement, and Applied Issues (pp119-130). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science. 2007.

[8] Vlachopoulos SP, Lane AM, Terry PC. “A Greek translation of the brunel mood scale: Initial validation among exercise participants and inactive adults. Sports (Basel). 2023; 11(12): 234. doi: 10.3390/sports11120234. PMID: 38133101; PMCID: PMC10748169.

[9] Han CS, Parsons-Smith RL, Fogarty GJ, Terry PC. “Psychometric properties of the Brunel Mood Scale among athletes and non-athletes in Singapore”. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022; 20(3): 698-714.‏ DOI: 10.1080/1612197X.2021.1919740.

[10] Bandura A. Self– Efficiacy: The Exercise of Control. Genre: Psychology Publisher. 1997.

[11] Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. “Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning”. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 2016; 23(5): 1382-1414. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9.

[12] Palmer K, Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G. "Enhanced expectancies facilitate golf putting". Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2016; 22: 229-232. DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.08.009.

[13] Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. “Self-controlled learning: The importance of protecting perceptions of competence”. Front. Psychol. 2012; 3: 458. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00458.

[14] Parma GO, Bacelar MFB, Cabral DAR, Lohse KR, Hodges NJ, Miller, MW. “That looks easy! Evidence against the benefits of an easier criterion of success for enhancing motor learning”. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2023; 66: 102394. DOI: doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102394.

[15] Mousavi SM, Dehghanizade J, Iwatsuki T. “Neither too easy nor too difficult: Effects of different success criteria on motor skill acquisition in children”. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology: 2022; DOI: 10.1123/jsep.2022-0082. [in Persian]

[16] Bacelar MFB, Parma JO, Murrah WM, Miller MW. "Meta-analyzing enhanced expectancies on motor learning: Positive effects but methodological 128 concerns". International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022; 17(7): 1-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2022.2042839.

[17] Bahrami S, Abdoli B, Farsi A, Aghdaei M. “The effect of the combination of visual illusion and external focus of attention on learning dart throwing skill in novices”. Yafte. 2022; 24(3): 12-23. DOI: 10.32592/Yafteh.2022.24.3.2.

[18] Ramezanzade H, DoranehKord M. “The effect of attention focus in errorless and errorful practice conditions on performance and learning of dart throwing skill”. Journal of Sports Movement Growth and Learning. 2018; 10 (1): 121-138. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22059/jmlm.2018.229760.1228. [in Persian]

[19] Ong NT, Lohse KR, Hodges NJ. “Manipulating target size influences perceptions of success when learning a dart-throwing skill but does not impact retention”. Front. Psychol. 2015; 6: 1378. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01378.

[20] Gernigon Ch, Fleurance Ph. "Effects of uncontrollability and faiure on the development of learned helpessness in perceptual– motor tasks". Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2000; 71(1): 44-54.

[21] Mohammadzadeh H. The Effect of Failure (Learned Helplessness) on the Performance and Learning of Motor Skills in Physical Education Students at Urmia University. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Tehran Tehran, Iran. 2003. [in Persian]

[22] Farrokhi A, Mutshariy A, Zeidabadi R. “Determining the factorial validity and reliability of the Persian version of the 32-item Bromez Mood Questionnaire”. Movement Behavior. 2013; 5(13): 15-40. [in Persian]

[23] Ghamari A, Mohamadi J, Mohamadi M. “The effect of errorless and error full practice on learning and transfer of dart throwing skill in adolescents with intellectual disabilities”. Behavioral Journal. 2015; 7(21): 126-111. [in Persian]

[24] Ong NT, Hodges NJ. “Balancing our perceptions of the efficacy of success-based feedback manipulations on motor learning”. Journal of Motor Behavior. 2018; 50: 614-630. DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2017.1383227.

[25] Wulf G. “Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 15 years”. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2013; 6(1): 77-104. DOI: 10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728.

[26] Azmi AMN, Gesikin J, Larry BA. “Errorless and errorful learning: the effect on the discrete throwing task”. Turkish Journal of Kinesiology. 2020; 6(4) :157-163. DOI: 10.31459/turkjkin.809194.

[27] Maxwell JP, Capio CM, Masters RS. "Interaction between motor ability and skill learning in children: Application of implicit and explicit approaches". European Journal of Sport Science. 2017; 17(4): 407-416. DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2016.1268211.

[28] Ong N T, Hawke J, Hodges N J. "Target size manipulations affect error processing duration and success perceptions but not behavioural indices of learning". Brain Sciences. 2019; 9: 119. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci9050119.

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The impact of success criteria in high-error practice conditions on motor learning, self-efficacy, and mood states: A challenge to the optimal theory

References

[1] Nazari Kakvandi S, Saberi Kakhki AR, Taheri H, Rohbanfard H. "The effect of selected practice arrangement on the learning of the relative timing of a motor task: Emphasis on implicit and explicit approaches". Motor Behavior. 2021; 13(45): 61-90. DOI: 10.22089/MBJ.2018.5641.1655. [in Persian]

[2] Plass JL, Homer BD, Pawar S, Brenner C, MacNamara AP. “The effect of adaptive difficulty adjustment on the effectiveness of a game to develop executive function skills for learners of different ages". Cognitive Development. 2019; 49: 56-67. DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.11.006.

[3] Sohbatiha M, Jaberimoqadam AA, Shahbazi M. ”The effect of errorless, error full practice and scaling equipment methods on learning of basketball free throw skill in children”. Motor Behavior. 2018; 9(30): 115-34. DOI: 10.22089/mbj.2017.4307.1511. [in Persian]

[4] Masters RSW, Poolton JM. "Advances in implicit motor learning". In: Hodges NJ, Williams AM, editors. Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory and Practice. 2^nd ed. London & New York: Routledge; 2012.

[5] Kashani V, Momenzadeh M, Bagherli Z. "The effects of based on error learning and practice variability on performance accuracy and mental effort". Motor Behavior. 2020; 12(40): 37-50. [in Persian]

[6] Poolton JM, Tiffany LZ. "So, you want to learn implicitly? Coaching and learning through implicit motor learning techniques". International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 2007; 2(1): 67-78. DOI: 10.1260/174795407780367177.

[7] Lane AM, Soos I, Leibinger E, Karsai I, Hamar, P. “Validity of the brunel mood scale for use with uk, italian and hungarian athletes”. In Lane AM. (ed.). Mood and Human Performance: Conceptual, Measurement, and Applied Issues (pp119-130). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science. 2007.

[8] Vlachopoulos SP, Lane AM, Terry PC. “A Greek translation of the brunel mood scale: Initial validation among exercise participants and inactive adults. Sports (Basel). 2023; 11(12): 234. doi: 10.3390/sports11120234. PMID: 38133101; PMCID: PMC10748169.

[9] Han CS, Parsons-Smith RL, Fogarty GJ, Terry PC. “Psychometric properties of the Brunel Mood Scale among athletes and non-athletes in Singapore”. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022; 20(3): 698-714.‏ DOI: 10.1080/1612197X.2021.1919740.

[10] Bandura A. Self– Efficiacy: The Exercise of Control. Genre: Psychology Publisher. 1997.

[11] Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. “Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning”. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 2016; 23(5): 1382-1414. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9.

[12] Palmer K, Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G. "Enhanced expectancies facilitate golf putting". Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2016; 22: 229-232. DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.08.009.

[13] Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. “Self-controlled learning: The importance of protecting perceptions of competence”. Front. Psychol. 2012; 3: 458. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00458.

[14] Parma GO, Bacelar MFB, Cabral DAR, Lohse KR, Hodges NJ, Miller, MW. “That looks easy! Evidence against the benefits of an easier criterion of success for enhancing motor learning”. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2023; 66: 102394. DOI: doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102394.

[15] Mousavi SM, Dehghanizade J, Iwatsuki T. “Neither too easy nor too difficult: Effects of different success criteria on motor skill acquisition in children”. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology: 2022; DOI: 10.1123/jsep.2022-0082. [in Persian]

[16] Bacelar MFB, Parma JO, Murrah WM, Miller MW. "Meta-analyzing enhanced expectancies on motor learning: Positive effects but methodological 128 concerns". International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022; 17(7): 1-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2022.2042839.

[17] Bahrami S, Abdoli B, Farsi A, Aghdaei M. “The effect of the combination of visual illusion and external focus of attention on learning dart throwing skill in novices”. Yafte. 2022; 24(3): 12-23. DOI: 10.32592/Yafteh.2022.24.3.2.

[19] Ong NT, Lohse KR, Hodges NJ. “Manipulating target size influences perceptions of success when learning a dart-throwing skill but does not impact retention”. Front. Psychol. 2015; 6: 1378. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01378.

[20] Gernigon Ch, Fleurance Ph. "Effects of uncontrollability and faiure on the development of learned helpessness in perceptual– motor tasks". Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2000; 71(1): 44-54.

[21] Mohammadzadeh H. The Effect of Failure (Learned Helplessness) on the Performance and Learning of Motor Skills in Physical Education Students at Urmia University. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Tehran Tehran, Iran. 2003. [in Persian]

[22] Farrokhi A, Mutshariy A, Zeidabadi R. “Determining the factorial validity and reliability of the Persian version of the 32-item Bromez Mood Questionnaire”. Movement Behavior. 2013; 5(13): 15-40. [in Persian]

[23] Ghamari A, Mohamadi J, Mohamadi M. “The effect of errorless and error full practice on learning and transfer of dart throwing skill in adolescents with intellectual disabilities”. Behavioral Journal. 2015; 7(21): 126-111. [in Persian]

[24] Ong NT, Hodges NJ. “Balancing our perceptions of the efficacy of success-based feedback manipulations on motor learning”. Journal of Motor Behavior. 2018; 50: 614-630. DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2017.1383227.

[25] Wulf G. “Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 15 years”. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2013; 6(1): 77-104. DOI: 10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728.

[26] Azmi AMN, Gesikin J, Larry BA. “Errorless and errorful learning: the effect on the discrete throwing task”. Turkish Journal of Kinesiology. 2020; 6(4) :157-163. DOI: 10.31459/turkjkin.809194.

[27] Maxwell JP, Capio CM, Masters RS. "Interaction between motor ability and skill learning in children: Application of implicit and explicit approaches". European Journal of Sport Science. 2017; 17(4): 407-416. DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2016.1268211.

[28] Ong N T, Hawke J, Hodges N J. "Target size manipulations affect error processing duration and success perceptions but not behavioural indices of learning". Brain Sciences. 2019; 9: 119. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci9050119.

Volume 16, Issue 2
July 2024
Pages 253-265

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The impact of success criteria in high-error practice conditions on motor learning, self-efficacy, and mood states: A challenge to the optimal theory

References

[1] Nazari Kakvandi S, Saberi Kakhki AR, Taheri H, Rohbanfard H. "The effect of selected practice arrangement on the learning of the relative timing of a motor task: Emphasis on implicit and explicit approaches". Motor Behavior. 2021; 13(45): 61-90. DOI: 10.22089/MBJ.2018.5641.1655. [in Persian]

[2] Plass JL, Homer BD, Pawar S, Brenner C, MacNamara AP. “The effect of adaptive difficulty adjustment on the effectiveness of a game to develop executive function skills for learners of different ages". Cognitive Development. 2019; 49: 56-67. DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.11.006.

[3] Sohbatiha M, Jaberimoqadam AA, Shahbazi M. ”The effect of errorless, error full practice and scaling equipment methods on learning of basketball free throw skill in children”. Motor Behavior. 2018; 9(30): 115-34. DOI: 10.22089/mbj.2017.4307.1511. [in Persian]

[4] Masters RSW, Poolton JM. "Advances in implicit motor learning". In: Hodges NJ, Williams AM, editors. Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory and Practice. 2nd ed. London & New York: Routledge; 2012.

[5] Kashani V, Momenzadeh M, Bagherli Z. "The effects of based on error learning and practice variability on performance accuracy and mental effort". Motor Behavior. 2020; 12(40): 37-50. [in Persian]

[6] Poolton JM, Tiffany LZ. "So, you want to learn implicitly? Coaching and learning through implicit motor learning techniques". International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 2007; 2(1): 67-78. DOI: 10.1260/174795407780367177.

[7] Lane AM, Soos I, Leibinger E, Karsai I, Hamar, P. “Validity of the brunel mood scale for use with uk, italian and hungarian athletes”. In Lane AM. (ed.). Mood and Human Performance: Conceptual, Measurement, and Applied Issues (pp119-130). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science. 2007.

[8] Vlachopoulos SP, Lane AM, Terry PC. “A Greek translation of the brunel mood scale: Initial validation among exercise participants and inactive adults. Sports (Basel). 2023; 11(12): 234. doi: 10.3390/sports11120234. PMID: 38133101; PMCID: PMC10748169.

[9] Han CS, Parsons-Smith RL, Fogarty GJ, Terry PC. “Psychometric properties of the Brunel Mood Scale among athletes and non-athletes in Singapore”. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022; 20(3): 698-714.‏ DOI: 10.1080/1612197X.2021.1919740.

[10] Bandura A. Self– Efficiacy: The Exercise of Control. Genre: Psychology Publisher. 1997.

[11] Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. “Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning”. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 2016; 23(5): 1382-1414. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9.

[12] Palmer K, Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G. "Enhanced expectancies facilitate golf putting". Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2016; 22: 229-232. DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.08.009.

[13] Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. “Self-controlled learning: The importance of protecting perceptions of competence”. Front. Psychol. 2012; 3: 458. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00458.

[14] Parma GO, Bacelar MFB, Cabral DAR, Lohse KR, Hodges NJ, Miller, MW. “That looks easy! Evidence against the benefits of an easier criterion of success for enhancing motor learning”. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2023; 66: 102394. DOI: doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102394.

[15] Mousavi SM, Dehghanizade J, Iwatsuki T. “Neither too easy nor too difficult: Effects of different success criteria on motor skill acquisition in children”. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology: 2022; DOI: 10.1123/jsep.2022-0082. [in Persian]

[16] Bacelar MFB, Parma JO, Murrah WM, Miller MW. "Meta-analyzing enhanced expectancies on motor learning: Positive effects but methodological 128 concerns". International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022; 17(7): 1-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2022.2042839.

[17] Bahrami S, Abdoli B, Farsi A, Aghdaei M. “The effect of the combination of visual illusion and external focus of attention on learning dart throwing skill in novices”. Yafte. 2022; 24(3): 12-23. DOI: 10.32592/Yafteh.2022.24.3.2.

[19] Ong NT, Lohse KR, Hodges NJ. “Manipulating target size influences perceptions of success when learning a dart-throwing skill but does not impact retention”. Front. Psychol. 2015; 6: 1378. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01378.

[20] Gernigon Ch, Fleurance Ph. "Effects of uncontrollability and faiure on the development of learned helpessness in perceptual– motor tasks". Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2000; 71(1): 44-54.

[21] Mohammadzadeh H. The Effect of Failure (Learned Helplessness) on the Performance and Learning of Motor Skills in Physical Education Students at Urmia University. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Tehran Tehran, Iran. 2003. [in Persian]

[22] Farrokhi A, Mutshariy A, Zeidabadi R. “Determining the factorial validity and reliability of the Persian version of the 32-item Bromez Mood Questionnaire”. Movement Behavior. 2013; 5(13): 15-40. [in Persian]

[23] Ghamari A, Mohamadi J, Mohamadi M. “The effect of errorless and error full practice on learning and transfer of dart throwing skill in adolescents with intellectual disabilities”. Behavioral Journal. 2015; 7(21): 126-111. [in Persian]

[24] Ong NT, Hodges NJ. “Balancing our perceptions of the efficacy of success-based feedback manipulations on motor learning”. Journal of Motor Behavior. 2018; 50: 614-630. DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2017.1383227.

[25] Wulf G. “Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 15 years”. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2013; 6(1): 77-104. DOI: 10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728.

[26] Azmi AMN, Gesikin J, Larry BA. “Errorless and errorful learning: the effect on the discrete throwing task”. Turkish Journal of Kinesiology. 2020; 6(4) :157-163. DOI: 10.31459/turkjkin.809194.

[27] Maxwell JP, Capio CM, Masters RS. "Interaction between motor ability and skill learning in children: Application of implicit and explicit approaches". European Journal of Sport Science. 2017; 17(4): 407-416. DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2016.1268211.

[28] Ong N T, Hawke J, Hodges N J. "Target size manipulations affect error processing duration and success perceptions but not behavioural indices of learning". Brain Sciences. 2019; 9: 119. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci9050119.

Volume 16, Issue 2July 2024Pages 253-265

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics

[4] Masters RSW, Poolton JM. "Advances in implicit motor learning". In: Hodges NJ, Williams AM, editors. Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory and Practice. 2^nd ed. London & New York: Routledge; 2012.

Volume 16, Issue 2
July 2024
Pages 253-265