A comparison of the level of stress, anxiety, and depression in professional and novice pregnant female athletes

Mokaberian, Mansoureh; Namdar Tajari, Somayeh

doi:10.22059/sshr.2024.373581.1128

A comparison of the level of stress, anxiety, and depression in professional and novice pregnant female athletes

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

¹ Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran

² Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sports Science, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Iran

10.22059/sshr.2024.373581.1128

Abstract

Background: Pregnancy can be a special but potentially stressful time for women. The routine life of female athletes who become pregnant may be challenged, and professional athletes may be more likely to experience psychological disorders during this time.
Aim: The objective of this study was to compare the stress, anxiety, and depression levels in professional and novice pregnant athletes.
Materials and Methods: 106 female volleyball players (42 professional and 64 novices) were selected as the research sample, based on their competitive levels and study participation criteria. Data were collected using a personal information form and the DASS-21 questionnaire developed by Lovibond 1995.
Results: The results of the MANOVA test showed that pregnant professional athletes had significantly higher levels of stress and depression compared to pregnant novice athletes (P≤0.05). Although professional athletes had higher levels of anxiety than novice female athletes, there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups on this scale (P≤ 0.05).
Conclusion: It seems that female athletes at high competitive levels experience increased psychological challenges because of the added responsibilities of motherhood, in addition to their sports commitments. It is recommended to prioritize physical and psychological interventions and strategies to enhance the mental well-being of these individuals.

Keywords

References

[1] DiPietro L, Evenson KR, Bloodgood B, Sprow K, Troiano RP, Piercy KL, et al. "Benefits of physical activity during pregnancy and postpartum: an umbrella review". Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2019; 51(6): 1292. https://doi.org/ 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001941.

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[4] Powe-Allred A, Powe K, Powe M. Atta Girl!: A Celebration of Women in Sport. Wish Publishing; 2003.

[5] Kruger JA, Murphy BA, Heap SW. "Alterations in levator ani morphology in elite nulliparous athletes: a pilot study". Aust New Zeal J Obstet Gynaecol. 2005; 45(1): 42-7. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1479-828X.2005.00349.x.

[6] Kruger JA, Dietz HP, Murphy BA. "Pelvic floor function in elite nulliparous athletes". Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2007; 30(1): 81-5. https://doi.org/10.1002/uog.4027.

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[8] PoyatosLeón R, García Hermoso A, Sanabria Martínez G, ÁlvarezBueno C, CaveroRedondo I, MartínezVizcaíno V. "Effects of exercise based interventions on postpartum depression: A metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials". Birth. 2017; 44(3): 200-8. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/birt.12294.

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[10] Sundgot-Borgen J, Sundgot-Borgen C, Myklebust G, Sølvberg N, Torstveit MK. "Elite athletes get pregnant, have healthy babies and return to sport early postpartum". BMJ Open Sport Med. 2019; 5(1). https://doi.org/ 10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000652.

[11] Bø K, BackeHansen KL. "Do elite athletes experience low back, pelvic girdle and pelvic floor complaints during and after pregnancy?". Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2007; 17(5): 480-7. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2006.00599.x.

[12] Sigurdardottir T, Steingrimsdottir T, Geirsson RT, Halldorsson TI, Aspelund T, Bø K. "Do female elite athletes experience more complicated childbirth than non-athletes? A case–control study". Br J Sports Med. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099447.

[13] Rogers MA, Appaneal RN, Hughes D, Vlahovich N, Waddington G, Burke LM, et al. "Prevalence of impaired physiological function consistent with Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S): An Australian elite and pre-elite cohort". Br J Sports Med. 2021; 55(1): 38-45. https://doi.org/ 10.1136/bjsports-2019-101517.

[14] Australian Bureau of Statistics. National survey of mental health and wellbeing: Summary of results. 2007.

[15] Foskett RL, Longstaff F. "The mental health of elite athletes in the United Kingdom". J Sci Med Sport. 2018; 21(8): 765-70. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jsams.2017.11.016.

[16] Walton CC, Rice S, Gao CX, Butterworth M, Clements M, Purcell R. "Gender differences in mental health symptoms and risk factors in Australian elite athletes". BMJ Open Sport Med. 2021; 7(1). https://doi.org/ 10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000984.

[17] Gorczynski PF, Coyle M, Gibson K. "Depressive symptoms in high-performance athletes and non-athletes: a comparative meta-analysis". Br J Sports Med. 2017. https://doi.org/ 10.1136/bjsports-2016-096455.

[18] Mousavi EA, Ahmad. Aghahheris, Mojgan. Zare H. "The effect of Lern program in reducing perceived stress and anxiety of students". Health Psychology. 2015; 3(2): 46-64. [in Persian]

[19] Sheykh M, Mansour Jozan Z, Amini MM. "The effect of physical activity and training of progressive muscle relaxation on the level of anxiety and perceived stress in patients with Covid-19". Sport Psychol Stud. 2020; 9(32): 227–48. [in Persian]

[20] Schneiderman N, Ironson G, Siegel SD. "Stress and health: Psychological, behavioral, and biological determinants". Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2005; 1: 607-28. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141.

[21] Tahmasebi A, Azadi H, Shekarchizadeh P, Karimian J. "The effect of resistance training on occupational performance areas and depression score of tertiary-educated individuals aged between 22 and 45 in Isfahan, Iran". J Heal Syst Res. 2016; 11(4): 731–5. [in Persian]

[22] Butt A, Javid S, Mazhar N, Bajwa S, Afzal S, Ashraf R, et al. "Comparison of depression, anxiety and stress with quality of life among pregnant women". Pakistan J Med Heal Sci. 2022; 16(07): 597. https://doi.org/ 10.53350/pjmhs22167597.

[23] Kuczera A, Opala-Berdzik A, Malá J, Sodowski M, Chmielewska D. "Comparison of first childbirth characteristics between elite judo athletes and non-athletes: The preliminary retrospective case–control study". Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022; 19(20): 13218. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/ijerph192013218.

[24] Zamani A, Zeidabodi R, Moteshareei E. "Validity and reliability of Persian version of the sport multidimensional perfectionism scale-2". Sport Psychol Rev. 2013; 2(3): 103-18. [in Persian]

[25] Zeidabadi R, Rezaie F, Motashareie E. "Psychometric properties and normalization of persian version of ottawa mental skills assessment tools (OMSAT-3)". Sport Psychol Rev. 2014; 3(7): 63-82. [in Persian]

[26] Lovibond PF, Lovibond SH. "The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories". Behav Res Ther. 1995; 33(3): 335-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U.

[27] Aghebati N, Mohammadi E EZ. "The effect of relaxation on anxiety and stress of patients with cancer during hospitalization". Iran Journal of Nursing. 2010; 23(65): 15-22. [in Persian]

[28] Moradipanah FM, Eesa. Mohammadil AZ. "Effect of music on anxiety, stress, and depression levels in patients undergoing coronary angiography". Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal. 2009; 15(3): 639-647. [in Persian]

[29] Pascoe M, Pankowiak A, Woessner M, Brockett CL, Hanlon C, Spaaij R, et al. "Gender-specific psychosocial stressors influencing mental health among women elite and semielite athletes: A narrative review". Br J Sports Med. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-105540.

[30] Bronfenbrenner U. "The ecology of cognitive development: Research models and fugitive findings". College Student Development And Academic Life: Psychological, Intellectual, Social and Moral Issues. 1997.

[31] Sallis JF. "Ecological models of health behavior". Heal Behav Heal Educ Theory, Res Pract. 2008: 465-86.

[32] Shalala A. "Exercising too much could affect fertility in young, healthy women, expert warns". ABC News. 2020. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-08-30/ fertility family-exercise-fitness-pregnancy-babies-health/12553466?section=sport.

[33] Strahler J, Skoluda N, Rohleder N, Nater UM. "Dysregulated stress signal sensitivity and inflammatory disinhibition as a pathophysiological mechanism of stress-related chronic fatigue". Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016; 68: 298-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.05.008.

[34] Shields GS, Toussaint LL, Slavich GM. "Stress-related changes in personality: A longitudinal study of perceived stress and trait pessimism". J Res Pers. 2016; 64: 61-8. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jrp.2016.07.008.

[35] Sarafraz MR. Prospective Study of Integrative Self-Knowledge, Mindfulness and Self-Control in Stress Regulation and Cardiovascular Reactivity. PhD Thesis, Health Psychology, Tehran University. 2013. [in Persian].

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A comparison of the level of stress, anxiety, and depression in professional and novice pregnant female athletes

References

[1] DiPietro L, Evenson KR, Bloodgood B, Sprow K, Troiano RP, Piercy KL, et al. "Benefits of physical activity during pregnancy and postpartum: an umbrella review". Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2019; 51(6): 1292. https://doi.org/ 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001941.

[2] Hyattsville MD. Services USD of H and H. US Department of Health and Human Services 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. Washington, DC. 2008.

[4] Powe-Allred A, Powe K, Powe M. Atta Girl!: A Celebration of Women in Sport. Wish Publishing; 2003.

[5] Kruger JA, Murphy BA, Heap SW. "Alterations in levator ani morphology in elite nulliparous athletes: a pilot study". Aust New Zeal J Obstet Gynaecol. 2005; 45(1): 42-7. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1479-828X.2005.00349.x.

[6] Kruger JA, Dietz HP, Murphy BA. "Pelvic floor function in elite nulliparous athletes". Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2007; 30(1): 81-5. https://doi.org/10.1002/uog.4027.

[8] PoyatosLeón R, García Hermoso A, Sanabria Martínez G, ÁlvarezBueno C, CaveroRedondo I, MartínezVizcaíno V. "Effects of exercise based interventions on postpartum depression: A metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials". Birth. 2017; 44(3): 200-8. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/birt.12294.

[10] Sundgot-Borgen J, Sundgot-Borgen C, Myklebust G, Sølvberg N, Torstveit MK. "Elite athletes get pregnant, have healthy babies and return to sport early postpartum". BMJ Open Sport Med. 2019; 5(1). https://doi.org/ 10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000652.

[11] Bø K, BackeHansen KL. "Do elite athletes experience low back, pelvic girdle and pelvic floor complaints during and after pregnancy?". Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2007; 17(5): 480-7. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2006.00599.x.

[12] Sigurdardottir T, Steingrimsdottir T, Geirsson RT, Halldorsson TI, Aspelund T, Bø K. "Do female elite athletes experience more complicated childbirth than non-athletes? A case–control study". Br J Sports Med. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099447.

[14] Australian Bureau of Statistics. National survey of mental health and wellbeing: Summary of results. 2007.

[15] Foskett RL, Longstaff F. "The mental health of elite athletes in the United Kingdom". J Sci Med Sport. 2018; 21(8): 765-70. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jsams.2017.11.016.

[16] Walton CC, Rice S, Gao CX, Butterworth M, Clements M, Purcell R. "Gender differences in mental health symptoms and risk factors in Australian elite athletes". BMJ Open Sport Med. 2021; 7(1). https://doi.org/ 10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000984.

[17] Gorczynski PF, Coyle M, Gibson K. "Depressive symptoms in high-performance athletes and non-athletes: a comparative meta-analysis". Br J Sports Med. 2017. https://doi.org/ 10.1136/bjsports-2016-096455.

[18] Mousavi EA, Ahmad. Aghahheris, Mojgan. Zare H. "The effect of Lern program in reducing perceived stress and anxiety of students". Health Psychology. 2015; 3(2): 46-64. [in Persian]

[19] Sheykh M, Mansour Jozan Z, Amini MM. "The effect of physical activity and training of progressive muscle relaxation on the level of anxiety and perceived stress in patients with Covid-19". Sport Psychol Stud. 2020; 9(32): 227–48. [in Persian]

[20] Schneiderman N, Ironson G, Siegel SD. "Stress and health: Psychological, behavioral, and biological determinants". Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2005; 1: 607-28. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141.

[21] Tahmasebi A, Azadi H, Shekarchizadeh P, Karimian J. "The effect of resistance training on occupational performance areas and depression score of tertiary-educated individuals aged between 22 and 45 in Isfahan, Iran". J Heal Syst Res. 2016; 11(4): 731–5. [in Persian]

[22] Butt A, Javid S, Mazhar N, Bajwa S, Afzal S, Ashraf R, et al. "Comparison of depression, anxiety and stress with quality of life among pregnant women". Pakistan J Med Heal Sci. 2022; 16(07): 597. https://doi.org/ 10.53350/pjmhs22167597.

[24] Zamani A, Zeidabodi R, Moteshareei E. "Validity and reliability of Persian version of the sport multidimensional perfectionism scale-2". Sport Psychol Rev. 2013; 2(3): 103-18. [in Persian]

[25] Zeidabadi R, Rezaie F, Motashareie E. "Psychometric properties and normalization of persian version of ottawa mental skills assessment tools (OMSAT-3)". Sport Psychol Rev. 2014; 3(7): 63-82. [in Persian]

[26] Lovibond PF, Lovibond SH. "The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories". Behav Res Ther. 1995; 33(3): 335-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U.

[27] Aghebati N, Mohammadi E EZ. "The effect of relaxation on anxiety and stress of patients with cancer during hospitalization". Iran Journal of Nursing. 2010; 23(65): 15-22. [in Persian]

[28] Moradipanah FM, Eesa. Mohammadil AZ. "Effect of music on anxiety, stress, and depression levels in patients undergoing coronary angiography". Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal. 2009; 15(3): 639-647. [in Persian]

[29] Pascoe M, Pankowiak A, Woessner M, Brockett CL, Hanlon C, Spaaij R, et al. "Gender-specific psychosocial stressors influencing mental health among women elite and semielite athletes: A narrative review". Br J Sports Med. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-105540.

[30] Bronfenbrenner U. "The ecology of cognitive development: Research models and fugitive findings". College Student Development And Academic Life: Psychological, Intellectual, Social and Moral Issues. 1997.

[31] Sallis JF. "Ecological models of health behavior". Heal Behav Heal Educ Theory, Res Pract. 2008: 465-86.

[32] Shalala A. "Exercising too much could affect fertility in young, healthy women, expert warns". ABC News. 2020. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-08-30/ fertility family-exercise-fitness-pregnancy-babies-health/12553466?section=sport.

[33] Strahler J, Skoluda N, Rohleder N, Nater UM. "Dysregulated stress signal sensitivity and inflammatory disinhibition as a pathophysiological mechanism of stress-related chronic fatigue". Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016; 68: 298-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.05.008.

[34] Shields GS, Toussaint LL, Slavich GM. "Stress-related changes in personality: A longitudinal study of perceived stress and trait pessimism". J Res Pers. 2016; 64: 61-8. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jrp.2016.07.008.

[35] Sarafraz MR. Prospective Study of Integrative Self-Knowledge, Mindfulness and Self-Control in Stress Regulation and Cardiovascular Reactivity. PhD Thesis, Health Psychology, Tehran University. 2013. [in Persian].

Volume 16, Issue 1
January 2024
Pages 95-104

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A comparison of the level of stress, anxiety, and depression in professional and novice pregnant female athletes

References

[1] DiPietro L, Evenson KR, Bloodgood B, Sprow K, Troiano RP, Piercy KL, et al. "Benefits of physical activity during pregnancy and postpartum: an umbrella review". Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2019; 51(6): 1292. https://doi.org/ 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001941.

[2] Hyattsville MD. Services USD of H and H. US Department of Health and Human Services 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. Washington, DC. 2008.

[4] Powe-Allred A, Powe K, Powe M. Atta Girl!: A Celebration of Women in Sport. Wish Publishing; 2003.

[5] Kruger JA, Murphy BA, Heap SW. "Alterations in levator ani morphology in elite nulliparous athletes: a pilot study". Aust New Zeal J Obstet Gynaecol. 2005; 45(1): 42-7. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1479-828X.2005.00349.x.

[6] Kruger JA, Dietz HP, Murphy BA. "Pelvic floor function in elite nulliparous athletes". Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2007; 30(1): 81-5. https://doi.org/10.1002/uog.4027.

[8] PoyatosLeón R, García Hermoso A, Sanabria Martínez G, ÁlvarezBueno C, CaveroRedondo I, MartínezVizcaíno V. "Effects of exercise based interventions on postpartum depression: A metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials". Birth. 2017; 44(3): 200-8. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/birt.12294.

[10] Sundgot-Borgen J, Sundgot-Borgen C, Myklebust G, Sølvberg N, Torstveit MK. "Elite athletes get pregnant, have healthy babies and return to sport early postpartum". BMJ Open Sport Med. 2019; 5(1). https://doi.org/ 10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000652.

[11] Bø K, BackeHansen KL. "Do elite athletes experience low back, pelvic girdle and pelvic floor complaints during and after pregnancy?". Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2007; 17(5): 480-7. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2006.00599.x.

[12] Sigurdardottir T, Steingrimsdottir T, Geirsson RT, Halldorsson TI, Aspelund T, Bø K. "Do female elite athletes experience more complicated childbirth than non-athletes? A case–control study". Br J Sports Med. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099447.

[14] Australian Bureau of Statistics. National survey of mental health and wellbeing: Summary of results. 2007.

[15] Foskett RL, Longstaff F. "The mental health of elite athletes in the United Kingdom". J Sci Med Sport. 2018; 21(8): 765-70. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jsams.2017.11.016.

[16] Walton CC, Rice S, Gao CX, Butterworth M, Clements M, Purcell R. "Gender differences in mental health symptoms and risk factors in Australian elite athletes". BMJ Open Sport Med. 2021; 7(1). https://doi.org/ 10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000984.

[17] Gorczynski PF, Coyle M, Gibson K. "Depressive symptoms in high-performance athletes and non-athletes: a comparative meta-analysis". Br J Sports Med. 2017. https://doi.org/ 10.1136/bjsports-2016-096455.

[18] Mousavi EA, Ahmad. Aghahheris, Mojgan. Zare H. "The effect of Lern program in reducing perceived stress and anxiety of students". Health Psychology. 2015; 3(2): 46-64. [in Persian]

[19] Sheykh M, Mansour Jozan Z, Amini MM. "The effect of physical activity and training of progressive muscle relaxation on the level of anxiety and perceived stress in patients with Covid-19". Sport Psychol Stud. 2020; 9(32): 227–48. [in Persian]

[20] Schneiderman N, Ironson G, Siegel SD. "Stress and health: Psychological, behavioral, and biological determinants". Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2005; 1: 607-28. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141.

[21] Tahmasebi A, Azadi H, Shekarchizadeh P, Karimian J. "The effect of resistance training on occupational performance areas and depression score of tertiary-educated individuals aged between 22 and 45 in Isfahan, Iran". J Heal Syst Res. 2016; 11(4): 731–5. [in Persian]

[22] Butt A, Javid S, Mazhar N, Bajwa S, Afzal S, Ashraf R, et al. "Comparison of depression, anxiety and stress with quality of life among pregnant women". Pakistan J Med Heal Sci. 2022; 16(07): 597. https://doi.org/ 10.53350/pjmhs22167597.

[24] Zamani A, Zeidabodi R, Moteshareei E. "Validity and reliability of Persian version of the sport multidimensional perfectionism scale-2". Sport Psychol Rev. 2013; 2(3): 103-18. [in Persian]

[25] Zeidabadi R, Rezaie F, Motashareie E. "Psychometric properties and normalization of persian version of ottawa mental skills assessment tools (OMSAT-3)". Sport Psychol Rev. 2014; 3(7): 63-82. [in Persian]

[26] Lovibond PF, Lovibond SH. "The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories". Behav Res Ther. 1995; 33(3): 335-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U.

[27] Aghebati N, Mohammadi E EZ. "The effect of relaxation on anxiety and stress of patients with cancer during hospitalization". Iran Journal of Nursing. 2010; 23(65): 15-22. [in Persian]

[28] Moradipanah FM, Eesa. Mohammadil AZ. "Effect of music on anxiety, stress, and depression levels in patients undergoing coronary angiography". Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal. 2009; 15(3): 639-647. [in Persian]

[29] Pascoe M, Pankowiak A, Woessner M, Brockett CL, Hanlon C, Spaaij R, et al. "Gender-specific psychosocial stressors influencing mental health among women elite and semielite athletes: A narrative review". Br J Sports Med. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-105540.

[30] Bronfenbrenner U. "The ecology of cognitive development: Research models and fugitive findings". College Student Development And Academic Life: Psychological, Intellectual, Social and Moral Issues. 1997.

[31] Sallis JF. "Ecological models of health behavior". Heal Behav Heal Educ Theory, Res Pract. 2008: 465-86.

[32] Shalala A. "Exercising too much could affect fertility in young, healthy women, expert warns". ABC News. 2020. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-08-30/ fertility family-exercise-fitness-pregnancy-babies-health/12553466?section=sport.

[33] Strahler J, Skoluda N, Rohleder N, Nater UM. "Dysregulated stress signal sensitivity and inflammatory disinhibition as a pathophysiological mechanism of stress-related chronic fatigue". Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016; 68: 298-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.05.008.

[34] Shields GS, Toussaint LL, Slavich GM. "Stress-related changes in personality: A longitudinal study of perceived stress and trait pessimism". J Res Pers. 2016; 64: 61-8. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jrp.2016.07.008.

[35] Sarafraz MR. Prospective Study of Integrative Self-Knowledge, Mindfulness and Self-Control in Stress Regulation and Cardiovascular Reactivity. PhD Thesis, Health Psychology, Tehran University. 2013. [in Persian].

Volume 16, Issue 1January 2024Pages 95-104

Files

Share

How to cite

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Volume 16, Issue 1
January 2024
Pages 95-104