The impact of success criteria in low-error practice conditions on motor learning, self-efficacy, and mood states: A challenge to the optimal theory

Khalilirad, Samaneh Sadat; Mohammadzadeh, Hasan; Ayatizadeh Tafti, Farahnaz

doi:10.22059/sshr.2024.383801.1167

The impact of success criteria in low-error practice conditions on motor learning, self-efficacy, and mood states: A challenge to the optimal theory

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

¹ Department of Motor Behavior and Sports Management, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran.

² Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Department of Sport Sciences Yazd University, Yazd, Iran

10.22059/sshr.2024.383801.1167

Abstract

Background: Identifying the practice conditions that optimize the learning of motor skills is one of the main objectives in the field of human motor learning research.
Aim: Present study aimed to explore the effect of success criteria in low-error practice conditions on motor learning, self-efficacy, and mood states among female students.
Materials and Methods: This practical quasi-experimental study was conducted in a field setting. The participants were 30 female students from Yazd University, selected through convenience sampling. After they completed the consent form, the selected participants were randomly divided into three groups: low-error practice with a large target (n= 10), low-error practice with a small target (n= 10), and a low-error control group (n= 10). Then, mixed ANOVA was applied in order to test the hypotheses and data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 23, with a significance level set at P < 0.05.
Results: The findings indicate that both the large (P=0.003) and small (P=0.001) target groups significantly outperformed the control group (P=0 .033) regarding the difference in performance accuracy. Moreover, In the small target group, a significant difference was observed only in the happiness subscale considering mood states (P=0.001), while in the large target group, significant differences were found in the tension (P=0 .003), depression (P=0.001), and fatigue subscales (P= 0.001). Regarding self-efficacy, significant differences were observed in the power dimension in both the large (P=0 .001) and small target groups (P=0.003)
Conclusion: The use of success criteria in low-error practice methods is beneficial, and it is recommended to adopt this approach to improve accuracy and stability in practice sessions.

Keywords

References

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[2] Abdollahipour R, Valtr L, Wulf G. “Optimizing bowling performance”. J Mot Learn Dev. 2019; 8(2): 233-44. https://doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2019-0017.

[3] Guadagnoli M, Lindquist K. (2007). “Challenge point framework and efficient learning of golf”. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 2(1): 185-197. https://doi.org/10.1260/17479540778 9705505.

[4] Magill R, Anderson D. Motor Learning and Control. United States of America: McGraw -Hill Education. 2017.

[5] Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. “Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning”. Psychon Bull Rev. 2016; 23(5): 1382-414. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9.

[6] Palmer K, Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G. “Enhanced expectancies facilitate golf putting”. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2016; 22: 229-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.08.009.

[7] Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. “Self-controlled learning: the importance of protecting perceptions of competence”. Front. Psychol. 2012; 3: 458. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00458.

[8] Conroy P, Lambon Ralph MA. “Errorless learning and rehabilitation of language and memory impairments”. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 2012; 22(2): 137. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2012.662064.

[9] Masters RS, Maxwell JP. “Implicit motor learning, reinvestment and movement disruption”. Skill Acquisition in Sport. 2004: 231-252. Routledge.‏ https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203646564.

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[11] Poolton JM, Masters RS, Maxwell JP. “Passing thoughts on the evolutionary stability of implicit motor behaviour: Performance retention under physiological fatigue”. Consciousness and Cognition. 2007; 16(2): 456-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2006.06.008.

[12] Vaez Mosavi MK, Abed Eshghi M. “Validity and reliability of persian version of the Sport Emotion Questionnaire (SEQ) among athletes with different physical activity level”. Sport Psychology Studies. 2023; 12(43), 31-52. https://doi.org/10.22089/spsyj.2020.7128.1757. [in Persian]

[13] Lane AM, Gregory P, Whyte P. Terry C, Nevill AM. “Mood, self-set goals and examination performance: the moderating effect of depressed mood”. Personality and Individual Differences. 2005. 39: 143-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.12.015.

[14] Bandura A. Self – Efficiacy: The Exercise of Control. Freeman. 1997.

[15] Moritz SE, Feltz DL, Fahrbach KR, Mack DE. “The relation of self-efficacy measures to sport performance: a meta-analytic review”. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2000; 71(3): 280-94. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2000.10608908. PMID: 10999265.

[16] Bandura A. Social Foundations of Thought and Action; A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood, Ciffs, NJ- Hall. Inc. 1986.

[17] Parma GO, Bacelar MFB, Cabral DAR, Lohse KR, Hodges NJ, Miller MW. “That looks easy! Evidence against the benefits of an easier criterion of success for enhancing motor learning”. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2023; 66: 102394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102394.

[18] Mousavi SM, Dehghanizade J, Iwatsuki T. “Neither too easy nor too difficult: Effects of different success criteria on motor skill acquisition in children”. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022; 10. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2022-0082. [in Persian]

[19] Bacelar MFB, Parma JO, Murrah WM, Miller MW. “Meta-analyzing enhanced expectancies on motor learning: Positive effects but methodological 128 concerns”. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2022.2042839.

[20] Taghiyan Fini F, Nezakat Alhosseini M, Safavi Homami Sh. “The effect of optimizing performance through enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and external attentional focus on motor learning in children”. Motor Behavior. 2023; 14(50): 17-38. https://doi.org/10.22089/mbj.2023.13834.2064. [in Persian]

[21] Goldberg DP, Williams P. A Users’s Guide to the General Health Questionnaire. London, England: GL Assessment. 1988.

[22] Ramezanzade H, Doraneh Kord M. “The effect of attention focus in errorless and errorful practice conditions on performance and learning of dart throwing skill”. Journal of Sports Movement Growth and Learning. 2018; 10(1): 121-138. https://doi.org/10.22059/jmlm.2018.229760.1228. [in Persian]

[23] Ong NT, Lohse KR, Hodges NJ. “Manipulating target size influences perceptions of success when learning a dart-throwing skill but does not impact retention”. Front. Psychol. 2015: 6: 1378. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01378.

[24] Farrokhi A, Mutshariy A, Zeidabadi R. “Determining the factorial validity and reliability of the Persian version of the 32-item Bromez Mood Questionnaire”. Movement Behavior. 2013; 13. [in Persian]

[25] Gernigon C, Fleurance P. "Effects of uncontrollability and faiure on the development of learned helpessness in perceptual – motor tasks". Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2000; 71(1): 44-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2000.10608879.

[26] Mohammadzadeh H. The Effect of Failure (Learned Helplessness) on the Performance and Learning of Motor Skills in Physical Education Students at Urmia University. Doctoral Dissertation and Defended at the University of Tehran. 2003. [in Persian]

[27] Ghamari A, Mohamadi J, Mohamadi M. “The effect of errorless and errorfull practice on learning and transfer of dart throwing skill in adolescents with intellectual disabilities”. Behavioral Journal. 2015; 7(21): 126-111. [in Persian]

[28] Schmidt RA, Lee TD. Motor Learning and Performance: From Principles to Application. Human Kinetics; 2013.

[29] Ong NT, Hawke J, Hodges NJ. “Target size manipulations affect error processing duration and success perceptions but not behavioural indices of learning”. Brain Sciences. 2019; 9: 119. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9050119.

[30] Ziv G, Lidor R. “Different task success criteria affect expectancies of success but do not improve golf putting performance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2021; 54, 101887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.101887.

[31] Ong NT, Hodges NJ. “Balancing our perceptions of the efficacy of success-based feedback manipulations on motor learning”. Journal of Motor Behavior. 2018; 50: 614-630. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.2017.1383227.

[32] Jones F, Harris P, Waller H, Coggins A. (2005). "Adherence to exercise prescription scheme: the role of expections, self – efficacy, stage of change and psychological well – being". British Journal of Health Psychology. 10(3): 359-378. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910704X24798.

[33] Coffee P, Rees T, Hasler A. "Bouneing back from failure: The interactive impact of perceived controllability and stability on self-efficacy beliefs and future task performance”. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2009; 27(11): 1117-1124. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410903030297.

[34] Mohammadzadeh H, Heydari M. (2012). The Relationship of Failure or Success with Self-Efficacy Expectations of Young Men in Shooting Task. Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning. 2012; 4(1): 5-18. https://doi.org/10.22059/jmlm.2012.25072.

[35] Shamsipour Dehkordi P, Vaez Mousavi MK, Aded Eshghi M. (2023). “Validity and reliability of persian version of the Sport Emotion Questionnaire (SEQ) among athletes with different physical activity level”. Sport Psychology Studies. 12(43): 31-52. https://doi.org/10.22089/SPSYJ.2020.7128.1757. [in Persian]

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The impact of success criteria in low-error practice conditions on motor learning, self-efficacy, and mood states: A challenge to the optimal theory

References

[1] Arsham S, Sarabandi M, Sanaei F. “The effect of social-comparative feedback and autonomy support on self-efficacy and children motor learning”. J Res Behav Sci. 2018; 15(4): 443-51. https://doi.org/20.1001.1.17352029.1396.15.4.7.2. [in Persian]

[2] Abdollahipour R, Valtr L, Wulf G. “Optimizing bowling performance”. J Mot Learn Dev. 2019; 8(2): 233-44. https://doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2019-0017.

[3] Guadagnoli M, Lindquist K. (2007). “Challenge point framework and efficient learning of golf”. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 2(1): 185-197. https://doi.org/10.1260/17479540778 9705505.

[4] Magill R, Anderson D. Motor Learning and Control. United States of America: McGraw -Hill Education. 2017.

[5] Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. “Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning”. Psychon Bull Rev. 2016; 23(5): 1382-414. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9.

[6] Palmer K, Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G. “Enhanced expectancies facilitate golf putting”. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2016; 22: 229-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.08.009.

[7] Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. “Self-controlled learning: the importance of protecting perceptions of competence”. Front. Psychol. 2012; 3: 458. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00458.

[8] Conroy P, Lambon Ralph MA. “Errorless learning and rehabilitation of language and memory impairments”. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 2012; 22(2): 137. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2012.662064.

[9] Masters RS, Maxwell JP. “Implicit motor learning, reinvestment and movement disruption”. Skill Acquisition in Sport. 2004: 231-252. Routledge.‏ https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203646564.

[11] Poolton JM, Masters RS, Maxwell JP. “Passing thoughts on the evolutionary stability of implicit motor behaviour: Performance retention under physiological fatigue”. Consciousness and Cognition. 2007; 16(2): 456-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2006.06.008.

[12] Vaez Mosavi MK, Abed Eshghi M. “Validity and reliability of persian version of the Sport Emotion Questionnaire (SEQ) among athletes with different physical activity level”. Sport Psychology Studies. 2023; 12(43), 31-52. https://doi.org/10.22089/spsyj.2020.7128.1757. [in Persian]

[13] Lane AM, Gregory P, Whyte P. Terry C, Nevill AM. “Mood, self-set goals and examination performance: the moderating effect of depressed mood”. Personality and Individual Differences. 2005. 39: 143-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.12.015.

[14] Bandura A. Self – Efficiacy: The Exercise of Control. Freeman. 1997.

[15] Moritz SE, Feltz DL, Fahrbach KR, Mack DE. “The relation of self-efficacy measures to sport performance: a meta-analytic review”. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2000; 71(3): 280-94. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2000.10608908. PMID: 10999265.

[16] Bandura A. Social Foundations of Thought and Action; A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood, Ciffs, NJ- Hall. Inc. 1986.

[17] Parma GO, Bacelar MFB, Cabral DAR, Lohse KR, Hodges NJ, Miller MW. “That looks easy! Evidence against the benefits of an easier criterion of success for enhancing motor learning”. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2023; 66: 102394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102394.

[18] Mousavi SM, Dehghanizade J, Iwatsuki T. “Neither too easy nor too difficult: Effects of different success criteria on motor skill acquisition in children”. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022; 10. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2022-0082. [in Persian]

[19] Bacelar MFB, Parma JO, Murrah WM, Miller MW. “Meta-analyzing enhanced expectancies on motor learning: Positive effects but methodological 128 concerns”. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2022.2042839.

[21] Goldberg DP, Williams P. A Users’s Guide to the General Health Questionnaire. London, England: GL Assessment. 1988.

[22] Ramezanzade H, Doraneh Kord M. “The effect of attention focus in errorless and errorful practice conditions on performance and learning of dart throwing skill”. Journal of Sports Movement Growth and Learning. 2018; 10(1): 121-138. https://doi.org/10.22059/jmlm.2018.229760.1228. [in Persian]

[23] Ong NT, Lohse KR, Hodges NJ. “Manipulating target size influences perceptions of success when learning a dart-throwing skill but does not impact retention”. Front. Psychol. 2015: 6: 1378. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01378.

[24] Farrokhi A, Mutshariy A, Zeidabadi R. “Determining the factorial validity and reliability of the Persian version of the 32-item Bromez Mood Questionnaire”. Movement Behavior. 2013; 13. [in Persian]

[25] Gernigon C, Fleurance P. "Effects of uncontrollability and faiure on the development of learned helpessness in perceptual – motor tasks". Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2000; 71(1): 44-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2000.10608879.

[26] Mohammadzadeh H. The Effect of Failure (Learned Helplessness) on the Performance and Learning of Motor Skills in Physical Education Students at Urmia University. Doctoral Dissertation and Defended at the University of Tehran. 2003. [in Persian]

[27] Ghamari A, Mohamadi J, Mohamadi M. “The effect of errorless and errorfull practice on learning and transfer of dart throwing skill in adolescents with intellectual disabilities”. Behavioral Journal. 2015; 7(21): 126-111. [in Persian]

[28] Schmidt RA, Lee TD. Motor Learning and Performance: From Principles to Application. Human Kinetics; 2013.

[29] Ong NT, Hawke J, Hodges NJ. “Target size manipulations affect error processing duration and success perceptions but not behavioural indices of learning”. Brain Sciences. 2019; 9: 119. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9050119.

[30] Ziv G, Lidor R. “Different task success criteria affect expectancies of success but do not improve golf putting performance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2021; 54, 101887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.101887.

[31] Ong NT, Hodges NJ. “Balancing our perceptions of the efficacy of success-based feedback manipulations on motor learning”. Journal of Motor Behavior. 2018; 50: 614-630. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.2017.1383227.

[32] Jones F, Harris P, Waller H, Coggins A. (2005). "Adherence to exercise prescription scheme: the role of expections, self – efficacy, stage of change and psychological well – being". British Journal of Health Psychology. 10(3): 359-378. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910704X24798.

[33] Coffee P, Rees T, Hasler A. "Bouneing back from failure: The interactive impact of perceived controllability and stability on self-efficacy beliefs and future task performance”. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2009; 27(11): 1117-1124. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410903030297.

[34] Mohammadzadeh H, Heydari M. (2012). The Relationship of Failure or Success with Self-Efficacy Expectations of Young Men in Shooting Task. Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning. 2012; 4(1): 5-18. https://doi.org/10.22059/jmlm.2012.25072.

Volume 17, Issue 1
January 2025
Pages 81-95

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The impact of success criteria in low-error practice conditions on motor learning, self-efficacy, and mood states: A challenge to the optimal theory

References

[1] Arsham S, Sarabandi M, Sanaei F. “The effect of social-comparative feedback and autonomy support on self-efficacy and children motor learning”. J Res Behav Sci. 2018; 15(4): 443-51. https://doi.org/20.1001.1.17352029.1396.15.4.7.2. [in Persian]

[2] Abdollahipour R, Valtr L, Wulf G. “Optimizing bowling performance”. J Mot Learn Dev. 2019; 8(2): 233-44. https://doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2019-0017.

[3] Guadagnoli M, Lindquist K. (2007). “Challenge point framework and efficient learning of golf”. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 2(1): 185-197. https://doi.org/10.1260/17479540778 9705505.

[4] Magill R, Anderson D. Motor Learning and Control. United States of America: McGraw -Hill Education. 2017.

[5] Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. “Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning”. Psychon Bull Rev. 2016; 23(5): 1382-414. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9.

[6] Palmer K, Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G. “Enhanced expectancies facilitate golf putting”. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2016; 22: 229-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.08.009.

[7] Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. “Self-controlled learning: the importance of protecting perceptions of competence”. Front. Psychol. 2012; 3: 458. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00458.

[8] Conroy P, Lambon Ralph MA. “Errorless learning and rehabilitation of language and memory impairments”. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 2012; 22(2): 137. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2012.662064.

[9] Masters RS, Maxwell JP. “Implicit motor learning, reinvestment and movement disruption”. Skill Acquisition in Sport. 2004: 231-252. Routledge.‏ https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203646564.

[11] Poolton JM, Masters RS, Maxwell JP. “Passing thoughts on the evolutionary stability of implicit motor behaviour: Performance retention under physiological fatigue”. Consciousness and Cognition. 2007; 16(2): 456-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2006.06.008.

[12] Vaez Mosavi MK, Abed Eshghi M. “Validity and reliability of persian version of the Sport Emotion Questionnaire (SEQ) among athletes with different physical activity level”. Sport Psychology Studies. 2023; 12(43), 31-52. https://doi.org/10.22089/spsyj.2020.7128.1757. [in Persian]

[13] Lane AM, Gregory P, Whyte P. Terry C, Nevill AM. “Mood, self-set goals and examination performance: the moderating effect of depressed mood”. Personality and Individual Differences. 2005. 39: 143-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.12.015.

[14] Bandura A. Self – Efficiacy: The Exercise of Control. Freeman. 1997.

[15] Moritz SE, Feltz DL, Fahrbach KR, Mack DE. “The relation of self-efficacy measures to sport performance: a meta-analytic review”. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2000; 71(3): 280-94. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2000.10608908. PMID: 10999265.

[16] Bandura A. Social Foundations of Thought and Action; A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood, Ciffs, NJ- Hall. Inc. 1986.

[17] Parma GO, Bacelar MFB, Cabral DAR, Lohse KR, Hodges NJ, Miller MW. “That looks easy! Evidence against the benefits of an easier criterion of success for enhancing motor learning”. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2023; 66: 102394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102394.

[18] Mousavi SM, Dehghanizade J, Iwatsuki T. “Neither too easy nor too difficult: Effects of different success criteria on motor skill acquisition in children”. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022; 10. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2022-0082. [in Persian]

[19] Bacelar MFB, Parma JO, Murrah WM, Miller MW. “Meta-analyzing enhanced expectancies on motor learning: Positive effects but methodological 128 concerns”. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2022.2042839.

[21] Goldberg DP, Williams P. A Users’s Guide to the General Health Questionnaire. London, England: GL Assessment. 1988.

[23] Ong NT, Lohse KR, Hodges NJ. “Manipulating target size influences perceptions of success when learning a dart-throwing skill but does not impact retention”. Front. Psychol. 2015: 6: 1378. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01378.

[24] Farrokhi A, Mutshariy A, Zeidabadi R. “Determining the factorial validity and reliability of the Persian version of the 32-item Bromez Mood Questionnaire”. Movement Behavior. 2013; 13. [in Persian]

[25] Gernigon C, Fleurance P. "Effects of uncontrollability and faiure on the development of learned helpessness in perceptual – motor tasks". Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2000; 71(1): 44-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2000.10608879.

[26] Mohammadzadeh H. The Effect of Failure (Learned Helplessness) on the Performance and Learning of Motor Skills in Physical Education Students at Urmia University. Doctoral Dissertation and Defended at the University of Tehran. 2003. [in Persian]

[27] Ghamari A, Mohamadi J, Mohamadi M. “The effect of errorless and errorfull practice on learning and transfer of dart throwing skill in adolescents with intellectual disabilities”. Behavioral Journal. 2015; 7(21): 126-111. [in Persian]

[28] Schmidt RA, Lee TD. Motor Learning and Performance: From Principles to Application. Human Kinetics; 2013.

[29] Ong NT, Hawke J, Hodges NJ. “Target size manipulations affect error processing duration and success perceptions but not behavioural indices of learning”. Brain Sciences. 2019; 9: 119. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9050119.

[30] Ziv G, Lidor R. “Different task success criteria affect expectancies of success but do not improve golf putting performance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2021; 54, 101887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.101887.

[31] Ong NT, Hodges NJ. “Balancing our perceptions of the efficacy of success-based feedback manipulations on motor learning”. Journal of Motor Behavior. 2018; 50: 614-630. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.2017.1383227.

[32] Jones F, Harris P, Waller H, Coggins A. (2005). "Adherence to exercise prescription scheme: the role of expections, self – efficacy, stage of change and psychological well – being". British Journal of Health Psychology. 10(3): 359-378. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910704X24798.

[33] Coffee P, Rees T, Hasler A. "Bouneing back from failure: The interactive impact of perceived controllability and stability on self-efficacy beliefs and future task performance”. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2009; 27(11): 1117-1124. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410903030297.

[34] Mohammadzadeh H, Heydari M. (2012). The Relationship of Failure or Success with Self-Efficacy Expectations of Young Men in Shooting Task. Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning. 2012; 4(1): 5-18. https://doi.org/10.22059/jmlm.2012.25072.

Volume 17, Issue 1January 2025Pages 81-95

Files

Share

How to cite

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Volume 17, Issue 1
January 2025
Pages 81-95